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This seems to be an obvious baseline from which to assess degradation and recovery medicine x pop up generic 200mg lamotrigine amex, since it is before any human modification treatment kidney stones buy lamotrigine 50 mg overnight delivery, but it is riddled with practical and theoretical issues medicine express cheap 50mg lamotrigine mastercard. Practically keratin intensive treatment discount lamotrigine 200mg line, it is rare to find data from such distant past that includes all the variables needed to draw a comparison with current ecosystem conditions (Broothaerts et al. There are also at least two conceptual challenges with the time bound natural state baseline. First, the climate and other biophysical environmental conditions have changed in the intervening time (from the baseline to present day) and it is difficult to disentangle the effect of anthropogenic degradation from natural environmental change (Bennion et al. The second challenge arises from the fact that some degree of disturbance by humans is part of the evolutionary history of many current organisms, and such potentially cascading ecological changes are challenging to identify or take into account (Jackson & Hobbs, 2009). Time bound historical baselines Unlike a natural state baseline, time bound historical baselines may have suffered some degradation and thus provide underestimates of actual degradation. On the other hand, when the more recent past is chosen as the historical baseline, more data is available. Counterfactual natural state baseline Another perhaps more operational approach for establishing the natural state baseline is the use of counterfactual thinking. Assessing deviations from the natural state would function equally well for this purpose, but as stated above, an estimated "natural state" can be more laborious to establish. A distinct discontinuity exists in the degree and type of disturbance around the onset of the modern era, about twothree centuries ago around 1750-1850. This "pre-modern Holocene", before the "great acceleration" reference state, is not easily manipulated and many examples show it to be implementable, though not without its challenges. The same challenges as with the time bound natural state exist, but are generally not as problematic. It is perhaps the most important of the states for policy purposes, since it represents the future and thus a state whose achievement can be influenced by policy. A reference or baseline is needed to assess the the concept of baseline in the law the concept of baseline is central also to the law, as impacts and damages are estimated relative to a reference state. Judges need a baseline to quantify the compensation measures and the law usually provides a definition of the baseline. This baseline can either converge or diverge from its ecological definition, even though ecological concepts are more and more integrated into environmental law (Naim-Gesbert, 1999) and tend to guide restoration and rehabilitation measures. For example, in the European environmental liability regime, the "baseline condition" is the condition of the land immediately prior to the observed degradation, based on the best information available (Directive on Environmental Liability, 2004). In law, the baseline condition is often simultaneously the target of restoration after damage, which makes it different from the assessment and restoration of land degradation discussed above. Consequently, if a definition of a baseline condition was given by an international convention, it could be ratified and integrated in national legal orders by the state parties. It describes a "process that produces a written statement to be used to guide decision making" (Sands & Peel, 2012) and is meant to determine the state of ecosystems before plans, programmes or projects. In this chapter, we do not mention the several functions of Environmental Impact Assessment as a tool, but we question its ability to mitigate land degradation and facilitate restoration. Indeed, the written statements of Environmental Impact Assessment rely on the perception of their authors and on the control made by public authorities. As many forms of land degradation are not perceived by the law as degradation sensu stricto, most of the impacts on land are not considered in these assessments. In other words, if the law does not perceive the land as degraded, there cannot be a legal obligation to restore (Boer & Hannam, 2004; Wyatt, 2008). Our point here is to demonstrate that a common understanding of land degradation in international environmental law, for national impacts and transboundary impacts, would guide the elaboration of Environmental Impact Assessment, acknowledging that it is also an international tool. However, the definition of the concept of land degradation in an international convention would have to overcome a severe obstacle made by the International Court of Justice. Uruguay, 2010) the Court stated that international law does not "specify the scope and content of an Environmental Impact Assessment and that it is for each state to determine in its domestic legislation or in the 65 2. International customs and conventions Constitution Law Regulation (national and local) 66 2. With regards to waste management, industrial activities or polluted sites, legal frameworks and regulations aim to remediate (see glossary) contaminated or impacted land to levels where introduced contaminants do not impact the future use of the land in question (Layard, 2004; Carella & Chiappini, 1995; Jahiel, 1998; Mu et al. This perspective is generally considered unambitious on its own as the objective is not ecological restoration (Billet, 2014; Brandon, 2013; Lambert, 2014; Zhao & Zhang, 2013). Furthermore, operation of controls by sworn agents on the exploitation sites needs to be enforced (Bryant & Akers, 1999; Cho, 1999; Mu et al.

We focus on creating spectacularly transformative learning experiences treatment high blood pressure buy lamotrigine 25 mg with visa, and inevitably the innovations follow medicine effects buy cheap lamotrigine 25 mg. Along the way medicine used for pink eye generic lamotrigine 100 mg without a prescription, our students develop a process for reliably producing creative solutions to nearly any challenge symptoms women heart attack lamotrigine 100mg without prescription. Financing Innovation Through Intellectual Property Response to Question (15) which asks "What new or existing investment models should be explored to support entrepreneurship in new geographies, as well as in technologies and sectors that are capital-intensive, relatively high-risk, and require sustained investment over long periods of time Companies have long been able to raise money based on their physical and financial assets. In contrast, intangible assets-such as patents, trademarks, and copyrights-are largely hidden, and therefore generally unavailable for financing purposes. That is not to say that intangibles are completely missing from financing activities. The first trade secrets case in the United States involved the debt on a bond secured in part by a secret chocolate-making process in 1837. Because intangible assets are not generally available as a source of investment and risk capital, innovative companies may face higher capital costs-or even a dearth of capital-to fund new ideas. Unable to use their intangible assets as a financial tool, prospective borrowers face a system that does not understand their true revenue potential and is unable to judge operational risks appropriately. The failure to overtly include intangible assets in the underwriting process may also have the consequences for the stability of the financial system. Standard terms of loans are often all inclusive liens, which cover everything including the kitchen sink. Bank regulators could use this foundation take steps to study and collect information on the role of intangibles in the financial system-and to underscore the risks of ignoring them. However, the rules are unclear as to whether intangible assets can be used as collateral. Carol Corrado, Jonathan Haskel, Cecilia Jona-Lasinio and Massimiliano Iommi, "Intangible Capital and Growth in Advanced Economies: Measurement Methods and Comparative Results," Co-Invest, June 2012. Murphy, "A Proposal for a Centralized and Integrated Registry for Security Interest in Intellectual Property, Appendix 19-Waterman v. Juan Mateos-Garcia, Using intellectual property to raise finance for innovation, Innovation Policy Platform, World Bank, 2014, innovationpolicyplatform. Ian Ellis, Maximizing Intellectual Property and Intangible Assets: Case Studies in Intangible Asset Finance, Athena Alliance Working Paper #07, November 2009. Kenan Patrick Jarboe and Roland Furrow, Intangible Asset Monetization: the Promise and the Reality, Athena Alliance Working Paper #03, April 2008. We would like to offer our response to Question 6: "How has the nature of the innovation process itself changed in recent years and what new models for science and technology investment and innovation policy, if any, do these changes require As such, the tools of synthetic biology can help address unmet grand challenges in health, energy, environment, and agriculture and enable next-generation sustainable manufacturing and economic growth driven by bio-based approaches. As one specific example, intermediaries have emerged who are supporting the reuse of engineered genetic materials, either as physical material or as information. Patent infringement is a strict liability offense in that actual or constructive knowledge of the existence of a patent is not necessary to support a claim for patent infringement. Similarly, intermediaries who maintain registries of biological parts are faced with potential liability for patent infringement. The establishment of registries of biological parts is rapidly expanding, and it is anticipated that multiple registries will soon be linked through a distributed semantic framework that will enable a global network of researchers to collectively describe, remotely query, share, and retrieve information about standard biological parts. However, for the vast majority of these registries, the property rights status of the biological parts is unknown. Without this information, the use of registries as a source for biological parts that can be developed for commercial purposes is limited. Even research use of the biological parts contained within these registries may be threatened, at least in the United States, by the lack of a formal research exemption. Registries of biological parts are vital for global harmonization in the engineering of biological systems. Given the risk of patent infringement liability, commercial entities are reluctant to contribute to public registries of biological parts.

We also require that the probability measure associated with a probability space have the following three fundamental properties treatment yeast in urine buy lamotrigine 50 mg without a prescription. Throughout this section symptoms 4-5 weeks pregnant buy discount lamotrigine 25mg on line, we consider only sets in E medications rapid atrial fibrillation discount lamotrigine 200mg on line, since the probability measure is defined only on these sets medicine overdose lamotrigine 100mg with mastercard. For two sets Ai and Aj that are not disjoint, p(Ai Aj) = p(Ai) + p(Aj) - p(Ai Aj). The complement of a set A, denoted by Ac, is defined as all elements in that are not in the set A. To capture this effect, we define the probability of event B conditioned on the occurence of event A as p(B A) = p(A B)/p(A), assuming p(A) = 0. In particular, a random variable X is a function mapping from the sample space to a subset of the real line. If X takes discrete values on the real line it is called a discrete random variable, and if it takes continuous values it is called a continuous random variable. Properties of the cdf are based on properties of the underlying probability measure. For X a continuous random variable, pX (x) is a function over the entire real line; for X a discrete dx random variable, pX (x) is a set of delta functions at the possible values of X. From the linearity of the expectation operator it is easily shown that, for any constant c, E[cX] = cE[X], Var[cX] = c2 Var[X], E[X + c] = E[X] + c, and Var[X + c] = Var[X]. Thus, scaling a random variable by a constant scales its mean by the same constant and its variance by the constant squared. The distribution of a random variable X can be determined from its characteristic function, defined as X = E[ejX] = - pX (x)ejx dx. Two random variables must share the same underlying probability space for their joint distribution to be defined. Their joint pdf (distribution) is defined as the derivative of the joint cdf: 582 g -1 (y) pX (x) dx. As with random events, observing the value for one random variable can affect the probability of another random variable. Independence between two random variables X and Y is a function of their joint distribution. For independent random variables, it is easily shown that E[f (X)g(Y)] = E[f (X)]E[g(Y)] for any functions f (x) and g(y). Note that the covariance and correlation of X and Y are equal if either X or Y has mean zero. We say that X and Y are uncorrelated if their covariance is zero or, equivalently, if their correlation coefficient is zero. We can show directly (or by using characteristic functions) that the distribution of Z is the convolution of the distributions of X and Y: pZ (z) = pX (x) pY (y). With this distribution it can be shown that E[Z] = E[X] + E[Y] and that Var[Z] = Var[X] + Var[Y]. So, for 583 sums of independent random variables, the mean of the sum is the sum of the means and the variance of the sum is the sum of the variances. A distribution that arises frequently in the study of communication systems is the Gaussian distribution. A complex random variable Z is complex Gaussian if Z = X + jY for X and Y jointly Gaussian real random variables. The distribution of Z is then obtained from the joint distribution of X and Y, as given by (B. The distribution of Z is obtained from joint distribution of these random variables, given by (B. For example, noise in a radio receiver typically consists of spurious signals generated by the various hardware components, and with a large number of i.

First symptoms 5 days before missed period order 50mg lamotrigine overnight delivery, the two-dimensional signal constellation is partitioned into four subsets as shown in Figure 8 symptoms enlarged spleen buy 200 mg lamotrigine. Note that the distance between points in each subset is twice the distance between points in the (uncoded) constellation medications 24 generic 25 mg lamotrigine fast delivery. From this subset partition medications 122 buy generic lamotrigine 50 mg, we form an 8dimensional lattice by taking all sequences of four points in which (i) all points are either A-points or B-points and (ii) within a four-point sequence, the point subscripts satisfy the parity check i1 + i2 + i3 + i4 = 0 (so the sequence subscripts must be codewords in the (4, 3) parity-check code, which has a minimum Hamming distance of 2). Thus, three data bits and one parity check bit are used to determine the lattice subset. The square of the minimum distance resulting from this subset partition is four times that of the uncoded signal constellation, yielding a 6-dB gain. However, the extra parity check bit expands the constellation by 1/2 bit per dimension, which by Section 5. The remaining data bits are used to choose a point within the selected subset and so, for a data rate of m bits per symbol, the four 2 3 the Cartesian product of two-dimensional rectangular lattices with points at odd integers. The complexity of the maximum likelihood decoder implemented with the Viterbi algorithm is roughly proportional to N. This work shows that turbo trellis coded modulation can come very close to the Shannon limit for non-binary signaling. In fading channels, errors associated with the demodulator tend to occur in bursts, corresponding to the times when the channel is in a deep fade. To improve performance of coding in fading channels, coding is typically combined with interleaving to mitigate the effect of error bursts. The basic premise of coding and interleaving is to spread error bursts due to deep fades over many codewords so that each received codeword exhibits at most a few simultaneous symbol errors, which can be corrected for. The spreading out of burst errors is accomplished by the interleaver and the error correction is accomplished by the code. The size of the interleaver must be large enough that fading is independent across a received codeword. Slowly fading channels require large interleavers, which in turn can lead to large delays. Coding and interleaving is a form of diversity, and performance of coding and interleaving is often characterized by the diversity order associated with the resulting probability of error. This diversity order is typically a function of the minimum Hamming distance of the code. In the following sections we discuss coding and interleaving for block, convolutional, and coded modulation in more detail. We will assume that the receiver has knowledge of the channel fading, which greatly simplifies both the analysis and the decoder. Estimates of channel fading are commonly obtained through pilot symbol transmissions [32, 33]. Maximum likelihood detection of coded signals in fading without this channel knowledge is computationally intractable [34] and so usually requires 4 this yields m - 1 bits/symbol, with the additional bit/symbol conveyed by the channel code. A discussion of interleaver design and performance analysis for turbo codes in fading channels can be found in [40, Chap. Low-density parity-check codes can also be designed for inherent diversity against fading, with performance similar to that of turbo codes optimized for fading diversity [43]. For block interleavers designed for an (n, k) block code, codewords are read into the interleaver by rows so that each row contains an (n, k) codeword. The interleaver contents are read out by columns into the modulator for subsequent transmission over the channel. An interleaver is called a deep interleaver if the condition dTs > Tc is satisfied. Bits are read into the deinterleaver from the demodulator by column so that each row of the deinterleaver contains a codeword (whose bits may have been corrupted by the channel). The deinterleaver output is read into the decoder by rows, one codeword at a time. Suppose our coding 278 scheme is an (n, k) binary block code with error correction capability t = 2. If this codeword is transmitted through a channel with an error burst of three symbols, then three out of four of the codeword symbols will be received in error. Since the code can only correct two or fewer errors, the codeword will be decoded in error. However, if the codeword is put through an interleaver then, as shown in Figure 8.

On the other hand medicine nobel prize order 200 mg lamotrigine fast delivery, the best approaches from the local level should also have an in uence at higher scales medicine qd order 100mg lamotrigine overnight delivery. The conclusions drawn from the study show that there is a clear disarticulation between the local-national scales that focus primarily on governance and transparency issues and the regional-global scales that focus more on policies treatment yeast infection male order lamotrigine 50 mg line, attitudes medicine 48 12 lamotrigine 200mg mastercard, and approaches to different key areas. Thus, there is a need to bridge the gap between the scales of policy making and governance. Probably the most important thing that stakeholders learned during the scenario-planning process was to see different perspectives. The purpose is to strengthen the link of the scenario process to policymaking and to achieve a real implementation of the research results in ecosystem management policies. Largeand small-scale mining, logging, and agricultural activities that have been implemented in the region over the past decades could suggest possible future directions. However, international policies directed towards better protection of forests and other natural resources, such as schemes for payments for ecosystem services, may potentially prevent large-scale exploitation of natural resources. The aim of the research was to identify a range of possible future scenarios with regards to the socioecological systems at the international, regional, national, and local community levels and to compile and prioritise a range of win-win, win-lose, and loselose options for local communities from the different scenarios. At the global and regional scales, the focus is more on policies and how these can inuence society and the environment, with publicprivate partnerships as the most promising strategies. At lower scales, the focus is on practices, the actual operationalisation and implementation of effective development and environmental management. More relevant future steps relate to education and capacitybuilding, mechanisms to safeguard natural resources, and communities joining government and private enterprises in decision-making. In worst-case scenarios, the linkages from local level to higher levels are weak and the scenarios at one scale do not impact other scales. On the other hand, the few win-win situations identify a close link between the local and national scales. These scenarios underline issues of governance and highlight the importance and in uence of effective and equitable power structures at the national level on locallevel sustainable futures. National governance plays a key role for the trickling down of best practices from the international level to their implementation at the local level. In order to promote the development of win-win scenarios, what should politicians and practitioners focus on The study shows t certain themes that constitute strong threads linking scales to one another: values, participative democracy, corruption, social policies, environmental policies, and dominant stakeholders. The development of participatory processes for policy development and implementation, involving stakeholders at all scales, could potentially be a key pathway for the trickling up of community values. A local understanding of and involvement in the processes is the key to positive outcomes through participatory scenario development, avoiding con icts and the loss of value. Although not a speci c focus of the study, the forest sector is part of the regional setting. According to the study, traditional sectors such as timber industries have declined whereas the service sector, particularly tourism, has become the economic backbone in many areas. These changes have been accompanied by a number of societal and economic transitions that have also tended to result in considerable changes in ecosystem services, such as scenic beauty, recreation, and avalanche protection. At the same time, the Swiss alpine regions have been projected to experience severe climate change impacts, such as decreased snow reliability, melting of glaciers, and a higher frequency of natural hazards. This type of learning process is likely to result in socially robust knowledge and a better understanding of the challenges and of future development for Swiss mountain regions facing global change. Multi-scale scenarios were developed in close collaboration with key stakeholders from the Visp region, working in areas such as tourism, forestry, and administration. The multi-scale scenarios were produced by combining expertise about global to national developments with knowledge on more speci c regional developments. Also, the purpose was to arrive at a more systemic and stakeholder-based understanding of the study region through scenarios of possible futures for the Visp region. The study generated six multi-scale scenarios that covered the global, national, and regional levels. The scenarios represented illustrations of how to form a systemic picture of the study region, anticipate possible futures, and point to strategies to cope with local and global challenges.

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