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Relatively few uses have been found for lignin arteria meningea purchase enalapril 10 mg with amex, and it poses impurity problems in extracting cellulose for feedstock use hypertension quizlet 10mg enalapril with amex. Hydrocarbon terpenes produced by rubber trees prehypertension treatment diet purchase 10 mg enalapril with amex, pine trees arteria3d - fortress construction pack enalapril 5mg mastercard, and some other kinds of plants. Proteins, produced in relatively small quantities, but potentially valuable as nutrients and other uses. Biological materials used as sources of feedstocks are usually complex mixtures, which makes separation of desired materials difficult. However, in some biological starting materials nature has done much of the synthesis. Most biomass materials are partially oxidized as is the case with carbohydrates, which contain approximately one oxygen atom per carbon atom (compared to petroleum hydrocarbons which have no oxygen). This can avoid expensive, sometimes difficult oxidation steps, which may involve potentially hazardous reagents and conditions. The complexity of biomass sources can make the separation and isolation of desired constituents relatively difficult. The most straightforward of these is a simple physical separation of biological materials, such as squeezing oil from oil-bearing biomass or tapping latex from rubber trees. Only slightly more drastic treatment consists of extraction of oils by organic solvents. Physical and chemical processes can be employed to remove useful biomass from the structural materials of plants, which consist of lignocellulose composed of cellulose bound together by lignin "glue. Sucrose sugar, C12H22O11, can be squeezed from sugar cane as sap and can be extracted from sugar beets and sugar cane with water. The exceptional photochemical productivity of sugar cane makes sucrose from this source an attractive option. Larger amounts of carbohydrates are available in starch, a polymer of glucose readily isolated from grains, such as corn, or from potatoes. An even greater source is found in cellulose, which occurs in woody parts of plants. It is relatively easy to break down starch molecules with the addition of water (hydrolysis) to give simple sugar glucose. Breaking down cellulose is more difficult, but can be accomplished by the action of cellulase enzymes. Volatile solvents, most commonly the 6-carbon straight-chain alkane n-hexane, C6H14, are used to extract oils. Feedstocks 309 In this process, the solvents are distilled off from the extract and recirculated through the process. The hydrocarbon terpenes that occur in rubber trees can be tapped from the trees as a latex suspension in tree sap. Steam treatment and distillation can be employed to extract terpenes from sources such as pine or citrus tree biomass. Grain seeds are rich sources of protein, almost always used for food, but potentially useful as chemical feedstocks for specialty applications. An exciting possibility just now coming to fruition in a practical sense is to transplant genes into plants so that they will make specialty proteins, such as medicinal agents. One of these consists of plants, which make huge quantities of cellulose and lesser quantities of other materials by photosynthesis. Fermentation Fermentation refers to the action of microorganisms on nutrients under controlled conditions to produce desired products. Fermentation for some products is anaerobic (absence of air) and for others aerobic fermentation is used. Fermentation processes have been used for thousands of years to produce alcoholic beverages, sauerkraut, vinegar, pickles, cheese, yogurt, and other foods. Ethanol, the alcohol in alcoholic beverages, is the most widely produced chemical made by fermentation. More recently, fermentation has been applied to the production of a wide variety of organic acids, antibiotics, enzymes, and vitamins.

Most people who have an automobile are vaguely aware that they have an automotive exhaust catalyst blood pressure medication make you cough order 5 mg enalapril fast delivery. That is because all living organisms have biological catalysts that enable reactions to occur blood pressure for 12 year old order enalapril 10 mg amex. There are enzymes that detoxify toxic substances blood pressure after eating order enalapril 10 mg otc, and in some cases they inadvertantly make toxic substances out of nontoxic ones pulse pressure heart failure buy discount enalapril 10 mg on line. Some of the more common cancer-causing substances are actually 88Green Chemistry, 2nd ed synthesized from other molecules by enzyme action. The simplest kind of chemical reaction to visualize is a combination reaction in which two substances come together to form a new substance. By injecting pulverized coal into a bed of CaO and other minerals kept in a fluid-like state by the injection of air, the sulfur dioxide produced has the opportunity to react with CaO and is not emitted as a pollutant with the stack gas. Addition reactions are very desirable in the practice of green chemistry because they are 100% atom economical. For example, impurity chloride ion, Cl-, must be avoided in solution because it can produce some Cl2 gas, a toxic, undesirable byproduct. Another inefficiency occurs because not all of the electricity passed through the solution is utilized to decompose water. The elemental carbon from this reaction is generated as a fine powder called carbonblack. Carbon black is an ingredient of the paste in dry cells (such as those used in portable electronic devices); it is used as a filler in tires and to make electrodes for electrolysis processes such as the one by which aluminum metal is prepared. This reaction also falls under the classification of reactions involving evolution of a gas, in this case evolution of hydrogen gas. A doublereplacement reaction, also called a metathesis reaction, is one in which two compounds trade ions or other groups. This is also a precipitation reaction in which a solid material forms from two substances dissolved in water; the solid formed is a precipitate. The removal of calcium from water as shown by this reaction is a common water treatment process called watersoftening. It is done because excessive levels of calcium cause formation of scale that can clog water pipes and damage plumbing apparatus. Exercise: Classify each of the following reactions as combination, decomposition, substitution, metathesis, neutralization, precipitation, or evolution of a gas. This name derives from the long standing use of oxidation to describe the reaction of a substance with oxygen. It is seen from this reaction that the calcium atoms lose electrons when they are oxidized and the oxygen atoms gain electrons. This leads to another definition of oxidation-reduction reactions, which is that when a chemical species loses electrons in a chemical reaction it is oxidized and when a species gains electrons it is reduced. When elemental oxygen reacts to produce chemically combined oxygen, it is acting as an oxidizingagent and is reduced. And when elemental hydrogen reacts to produce chemically combined hydrogen, it acts as a reducingagent and is oxidized. When chemically combined oxygen is released as elemental oxygen from a chemical reaction, the oxygen is oxidized. And when elemental hydrogen is released as the result of a chemical reaction, hydrogen is reduced. At the left electrode, electrons are pumped into the system reducing the chemically bound H in H2O to elemental H2. At the other electrode, electrons are removed from the system, elemental O2 is released, and the oxygen in H2O is oxidized. It is very significant in the practice of green chemistry because it is a means of getting pure hydrogen and pure oxygen from water without the use of any other chemical reagents. For example, using a nonpolluting source of energy, such as wind power, elemental hydrogen can be generated for use in nonpolluting fuel cells (see Figure 2. Oxidation-reduction reactions are very significant in energy conversion processes. The oxygen is reduced and carbon is oxidized by the action of the elemental oxygen. Electrolysis of water containing some dissolved salt to make it electrically conducting. At the left electrode (cathode) H in H2O is reduced by adding electrons releasing H2 gas.

It may be necessary to process raw materials from a source to convert it to the specific material used as a feedstock for a chemical process blood pressure 210110 buy enalapril 5 mg with visa. Often most of the environmental harm in providing feedstocks comes during the isolation process heart attack telugu movie online order enalapril 10mg with visa, in large part because of the relatively large amount of waste material that must be discarded in obtaining the needed feedstock pulse pressure 16 buy 5 mg enalapril with amex. Once a suitable chemical feedstock is obtained blood pressure medication yeast infections cheap enalapril 5 mg on-line, it is subjected to chemical processes that give the final product. As addressed below, this may consist of reactions with various kinds of reagents in media such as organic solvents, often using catalysts. Reagents the term reagents is used here to describe the substances that act upon basic chemical feedstocks to convert them to new chemicals in synthetic processes. The kinds of reagents used have a very strong effect upon the acceptability of a chemical process with respect to green chemical aspects. Much of the work that has been done in developing and using green reagents has involved organic chemical processes, many of which are beyond the scope of this book. However, some of the general aspects of chemical reagents from a green chemical perspective are discussed here. The most obvious characteristic required of a good chemical reagent is that it do what it is supposed to do, completely, and at an acceptable rate. A reagent with a high product selectivity produces a high percent age of the desired product with a low percentage of undesired byproducts. Another desirable characteristic of a good reagent is high product yield meaning that most of the feedstocks are converted to product. The use of reagents that provide high selectivity and yield means that less unreacted feedstock and byproduct material have to be handled or disposed. One of the most common measures taken in implementing green chemical processes is selection of alternative reagents. The criteria used in selecting a reagent include whether or not it is available, how efficient it is, and its effects. Important considerations with the chemical transformation are whether it is stoichiometric or catalytic, the degree to which it is atom economical, and the quantities and characteristics of any wastes produced. One of the main kinds of reactions for which reagents are used is oxidation, which usually consists of the addition of oxygen to a chemical compound or a functional group on a compound. Some of these reagents, such as potassium dichromate, K2Cr2O7 are dangerous (dichromate salts are considered to be carcinogenic when inhaled for prolonged periods of time) and leave troublesome residues that require disposal. Because of problems with oxidants that are commonly used, a major objective in the practice of green chemistry is to use more benign oxidants. Alternatives to the more traditional oxidant reagents include molecular oxygen (O2), ozone (O3), and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), usually used with a suitable catalyst that enables the oxidation reaction to occur. Under the right conditions, hydrogen peroxide can be used as an alternative to elemental chlorine, Cl2, a strong oxidant used in bleaching colored materials, such as paper pulp and cloth. Since chlorine is toxic (it was used as a poison gas in World War I) and has a tendency to react with organic compounds to produce undesirable chlorinated organic compounds, hydrogen peroxide is a much preferable bleaching agent. In contrast to the usually harsh conditions under which chemical oxidations are carried out, organisms carry out biochemical oxidations under mild conditions. In so doing, they use monooxygenase and peroxidase enzymes that catalyze the oxidizing action of molecular oxygen or hydrogen peroxide. An area of significant interest in green chemistry is to perform such oxidations in biological systems or to attempt the use of catalysts that mimic the action of enzymes in catalyzing oxidations with molecular oxygen or hydrogen peroxide. Reduction, which consists of loss of O, gain of H, or gain of electrons by a chemical species is also a common operation in chemical synthesis. As is the case with oxidants, the reagents used to accomplish reduction can pose hazards and produce undesirable byproducts. Such reductants include lithium aluminum hydride (LiAlH4) and tributyl tin hydride. As an alternative to the potentially troublesome oxidation and reduction procedures using reagents, electrochemistry provides a reagentless means of doing oxidation and reduction. This is possible because an electrical current consists of moving electrons and oxidation consists of electron removal from a chemical species and reduction is addition of an electron. The passage of an electrical current between metal or carbon graphite electrodes through a solution resulting in oxidation and reduction reactions is called electrolysis. Toward a Greener Anthrosphere through Industrial Ecology 299 and at the anode where electrons are removed, O2 is released as the water is oxidized: 2H2O O2 + 4H+ + 4e(11.

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This reaction implies that the substrate is split apart by enzyme action arrhythmia institute newtown generic enalapril 5mg overnight delivery, a very 230Green Chemistry arteria in english buy 5mg enalapril free shipping, 2nd ed Enzyme+substrateenzyme/substratecomplexproducts+enzyme Figure 9 arteria epigastrica enalapril 10 mg sale. The enzyme recognizes the substrate upon which it acts because of the complementary shapes of the enzyme and the substrate blood pressure ranges for dogs purchase enalapril 10mg with visa. Other types of enzyme-catalyzed reactions occur, including the joining of two molecules, modifications of functional groups (see Section 5. The names of enzymes, usually ending in "-ase," often reflect their functions and may also indicate where they operate. An example is gastric proteinase, a name that indicates the enzyme acts in the stomach (gastric) and hydrolyzes proteins (proteinase). The enzyme released by the pancreas that hydrolyzes fats is called pancreatic lipase. Organisms without temperature-regulating mechanisms have enzymes that increase in activity as temperature increases up to the point where the heat damages the enzyme, after which the activity declines precipitously with increasing temperature. There is particular interest in enzymes that function in bacteria that live in hot springs and other thermal areas where the water is at or near boiling. These enzymes may turn out to be very useful in commercial biosynthesis operations where the higher temperature enables reactions to occur faster. Acid concentration also affects enzymes, such as those that function well in the acidic environment of the stomach, but stop working when discharged into the slightly basic environment of the small intestine (were this not the case, they would tend to digest the intestine walls). As an example, organophosphate compounds, such as insecticidal parathion and military poison sarin "nerve gas" bind with acetylcholinesterase required for nerve function, causing it not to act and stopping proper nerve action. Some substances cause the intricately wound protein structures of enzymes to come apart (denaturation) which stops enzyme action. The Biosphere 231 Enzymes are of significant concern in the practice of green chemistry. One obvious relationship is that between enzymes and chemicals that are toxic to them. In carrying out green chemical processes, such chemicals should be avoided wherever possible. Another obvious relationship has to do with the use of biological processes to perform chemical operations carried out by enzymes. Because of the benign conditions - particulary of temperature - under which enzymes operate, biologically mediated chemical processes are usually done under much milder and environmentally friendly conditions biologically than chemically. For example, several enzymes, starting with hexokinase, are involved in the multistepped biochemical fermentation synthesis of ethyl alcohol from carbohydrate glucose. Bacteria are much more amenable to handling and usually much more efficient than the organisms from which the genes for the desired enzyme systems are taken. Another approach is to use isolated enzymes immobilized on a solid support to carry out biochemical processes without the direct involvement of an organism. Nutrients the raw materials that organisms require for their metabolism are nutrients. Those required in larger quantities include oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, calcium, and magnesium and are called macronutrients. Heterotrophic organisms obtain much of the macronutrients that they need as carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids (see Chapter 5) from organic food material. An important consideration in plant nutrition is the provision of fertilizers consisting of sources of nutrient nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. The ongoing depletion of sources of phosphorus and potassium fertilizer is a sustainability issue of significant concern. Organisms also require very low levels of a number of micronutrients, which are usually used by essential enzymes that enable metabolic reactions to occur. For plants, essential micronutrients include the elements boron, chlorine, copper, iron, manganese, sodium, vanadium, and zinc. The bacteria that fix atmospheric nitrogen required by plants require trace levels of molybdenum.