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In dealing with this enormous pressure to help address the housing needs of various populations and simultaneously address the very real public safety concerns antibiotic used to treat mrsa purchase 500 mg azithromycin fast delivery, some public housing authorities across the country have drafted overly broad policies that disqualify individuals who pose little or no risk to the general health and safety of the community antibiotics for uti azithromycin azithromycin 100 mg low cost. Elizabeth Benito (Projects Administrator treatment for dogs coughing and gagging order azithromycin 250 mg online, Plan to End Homelessness antibiotics drug test buy cheap azithromycin 250mg, Chicago Department of Housing), meeting with Michelle Light, Ellen Sahli, and Rick Guzman, October 12, 2005. McKinney Homeless Assistance Act of 1987, defines "homeless" as "an individual [or family] who lacks a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence and who has a primary nighttime residence that is a temporary shelter, institution, or public or private place not designed for regular sleeping accommodation. In return, the organizations not only provide housing and other social services for the parolees but also assumes a large share of responsibility for their supervision. Niuris Ramos (Lead Community Organizer, Near Northwest Neighborhood Network), interview with Ben Lumpkin, July 7, 2005. Richard Guzman (Manager, Office of Reentry Management and Placement Resource Unit, Illinois Department of Corrections), interview with Ben Lumpkin, April 28, 2005. Joanne Archibald (Associate Director, Chicago Legal Advocacy for Incarcerated Mothers), interview with Ben Lumpkin, May 20, 2005. Zehr, Howard, "Restorative Justice: the Concept," Corrections Today, December 1997, vol. See Prison Fellowship International "Restorative Justice Online" webpage. Programs, "From Prisons to Parks in Oregon," Ideas for An Open Society Occasional Papers Series vol. Editorial, "Phantom Constituents in the Census," New York Times, September 26, 2005, ( Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher, the editor, and the authors have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. Neither the publisher, nor the editor, nor the authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Neither the publisher, nor the editor, nor the authors shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. For general information about our other products and services, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993, or fax (317) 572-4002. Wiley publishes in a variety of print and electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some material included with standard print versions of this book may not be included in e-books or in print-on-demand. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Handbook of human factors and ergonomics/edited by Gavriel Salvendy. He is the author or co-author of over 550 research publications, including over 300 journal papers and is the author or editor of 42 books. His main research deals with the human aspects of design, operation, and management of advanced engineering systems. Gavriel Salvendy is the founding editor of two journals: the International Journal on Human­Computer Interaction and Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing and Service Industries. He was the founding chair of the International Commission on Human Aspects in Computing, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. In 1990 he became the first member of either the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society or the International Ergonomics Association to be elected to the National Academy of Engineering. He was elected "for fundamental contributions to and professional leadership in human, physical, and cognitive aspects of engineering systems. He has advised organizations in 31 countries on the human side of effective design, implementation and management of advanced technologies in the workplace. Bennett Professor and Human Factors Area Leader Department of Psychology Wright State University Dayton, Ohio Kenneth R. Boff Principal Scientist Tennenbaum Institute Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta, Georgia Anna Bogdan Researcher, Department of Ergonomics Lab Manager, Thermal Load Laboratory Central Institute for Labour Protection-National Research Institute Warsaw, Poland Walter R. Boot Assistant Professor Department of Psychology Florida State University Tallahassee, Florida Walter C. Borman Professor Department of Psychology University of South Florida and Personnel Decisions Research Institute Tampa, Florida Peter R. Bruning Graduate Research Assistant Organizational Behavior and Human Resources Krannert School of Management School of Business Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana Michael A.

Former prisoners antibiotics for uti when pregnant order azithromycin 250mg online, specifically those who have been away from their communities for a significant period of time antibiotics alcohol cheap azithromycin 250mg with visa, may need assistance determining where services are located and how to travel to these services antibiotics for sinus and throat infection discount azithromycin 250 mg visa. There does not appear to be any consistent sulfa antibiotics for sinus infection 500 mg azithromycin amex, reliable source to guide individuals with criminal records. Word of mouth can be invaluable, but may be limited in terms of depth and breadth of information. Former prisoners and their families volunteer to staff the hotline and provide additional information, support, and linkages to community services. For their service, the volunteers receive transportation passes, meal allowances, and small stipends. The hotline receives an estimated 200 calls a month; approximately 30 percent are repeat callers. Solution the City should develop an extensive community resource mapping system to identify organizations and programs in each Chicago community that serve formerly incarcerated individuals. After this information has been compiled, the City should, then, develop mechanisms and explore different channels by which to disseminate and share this information. The City sho uld create a "reentry reso urce guide" containing organizations, programs, services, contact information and transportation options for each community. This vehicle allows for increased accessibility to many people, and will enable the database to be updated and maintained regularly. As with any kind of resource guide, it runs the risk of becoming obsolete within months. Consequently, the issue of how, when and who updates and maintains this resource guide and database must be dealt with at the outset. They would be a consistent and low-cost labor force, and would gain invaluable job experience at the same time. Additionally, it would help them learn about organizations, programs and services available to them after their release. A toll-free hotline could be established, as an alternative, to provide callers with information on a wide range of issues, including treatment centers, housing resources, and employment agencies. Formerly incarcerated individuals could contact the 311 Call Center or the toll-free hotline if they are unsure about where to go for assistance, and the operators could use the resource guide to provide direction and guidance. Recommendation Issue Housing is one of the most important elements of a reentry plan for prisoners returning to the community from prisons and jails, but sometimes a stable housing option cannot be found by the time an individual is released. Nationwide, of the approximately 650,000 individuals released from state and federal prisons annually, and the seven million individuals released from local jails, an estimated 10 percent are released into homelessness. New research has emerged on the relationship between incarceration and homelessness, which suggests that "homelessness contributes to a higher risk for incarceration and that, inversely, incarceration contributes to an increased risk of homelessness. The recidivism rate for its residents after three years is approximately 20 percent, compared to the statewide rate of 54 percent. But the homeless service system is not equipped to deal with large numbers of formerly incarcerated individuals. Of course, former prisoners are only a smaller subset of the larger general population in need. Cutbacks in federal housing resources have reduced the housing alternatives for all low-income people. As the Re-Entry Policy Council pointed out, "Given the overwhelming demand for and limited supply of affordable housing and the stigma of having a criminal history, it is unrealistic that individuals released from prison or jail would be given priority access to the affordable housing. At the same time, there are public safety and other implications to categorically excluding recently released individuals from this housing stock. So currently, securing a new lease or a new voucher through federally-assisted housing is not a realistic option for anyone in Chicago, let alone those with criminal backgrounds. Released prisoners who may be able to stay with family, or on their own, in their old communities may not want to do so. The Urban Institute found that 45 percent of men leaving prison in Illinois chose not to return to the same Chicago community where they had lived before prison, partly because they wanted to "avoid trouble" in their old neighborhoods. Indeed, some individuals may actually need some form of "supportive housing," where their place of residence is enriched with on-site services including a case manager to help facilitate access to treatment, counseling, employment and educational programs. In the ho using arena, mo re o ptio ns fo r fo rmerly incarcerated people must exist to prevent recidivism, foster stability, and promote public safety. Of the affordable housing that is available, many returning prisoners do not have the financial ability to even pay a deposit on an apartment by themselves. Public housing policies in this country are governed by a complex set of federal laws and regulations, local policy directives, ordinances and judicial case law.

In the terminology of Gibson (1979) infection quizlet buy azithromycin 100mg otc, the natural object is perceived as having an actionable property (an affordance) antibiotics for dogs online azithromycin 100 mg on-line, which means that it is seen as being useful for a specific purpose antibiotics for sinus infection nausea purchase 500 mg azithromycin with mastercard. An artifact is designed with a specific purpose (or set of uses) in mind and should ideally offer a similar perceived affordance antibiotics for sinus infection symptoms cheap azithromycin 250mg free shipping. When a person designs or constructs something for himself or herself an artifact or a composite activity, there is no need to ask what the person is capable of, what the artifact should be used for, or how it should be used. But the need is there in the case of a single but complex artifact where the use requires a series of coordinated or ordered actions. It is also there in the case of more complex, organized work processes where the activities or tasks of an individual must fit into a larger whole. Indeed, just as the designer of a complex artifact considers its components and how they must work together for the artifact to be able to provide its function, so must the work process designer consider the characteristics of people and how they must collaborate to deliver the desired end product or result. It is, indeed, no coincidence that the first task analyses were made for organized work processes rather than for the single users working with artifacts or machines. As long as the artifact or the work processes are built around the person, there is little need to make any of these assumptions explicit or indeed to produce a formal description of them: the user and the designer are effectively the same person. There is also little need of prior thought or prior analysis since the development is an integral part of work rather than an activity that is separated in time and space. But when the artifact is designed by one person to be used by someone else, the designer needs to be very careful and explicit in making assumptions and to consider carefully what the future user may be able to do and will do. In other words, it is necessary in these cases to analyze how the artifact will be used or to perform a task analysis. The hallmark of a good method is that the classification scheme is applied consistently and uniformly, thereby limiting the opportunities for subjective interpretations and variations. Task analysis should depend not on personal experience and skills but on generalized public knowledge and common sense. A method is also important as a way of documenting how the analysis has been done and of describing the knowledge that was used to achieve the results. It helps to ensure that the analysis is carried out in a systematic fashion so that it, if needed, can be repeated, hopefully leading to the same results. The outcome of the task analysis accounts for the organization or structure of constituent tasks. A critical issue is the identification or determination of elementary activities or task components. The task analysis serves among other things to explain how something should be done for a user who does not know what to do or who may be unable to remember it (in the situation). There is therefore no need to describe things or tasks that the user definitely knows. It would clearly be useful if it was possible to find a set of basic tasks-or activity atoms-that could be applied in all contexts. This is akin to finding a set of elementary processes or functions from which a complex behavior can be built. Such endeavors are widespread in the behavioral and cognitive sciences, although the success rate usually is quite limited. The main reason is that the level of an elementary task depends on the person as well as on the domain. Even if a common denominator could be found, it would probably be at a level of detail as to have little practical value. Probably the first-and probably also the most ambitious-attempt was made by Frank Bunker Gilbreth, one of the pioneers of task analysis. The categorization, first reported about 1919, evolved from the observation by trained motionand-time specialists of human movement, specifically of the fundamental motions of the hands of a worker. Gilbreth found that it was possible to distinguish among the following 17 types of motion: search, select, grasp, reach, move, hold, release, position, pre-position, inspect, assemble, disassemble, use, unavoidable delay, wait (avoidable delay), plan, and rest (to overcome fatigue). This comprises 11 functions, which are in alphabetical order: communicating, coordinating tasks, executing procedures, maintaining, planning, problem solving, recognizing, recording, regulating, scanning, and steering. An important part of the method is to name and identify the main constituents of a task and how they are organized. As described later in this chapter, task analysis has through its development embraced several different principles of task organization, of which the main ones are the sequential principle, the hierarchical principle, and the functional dependency principle. To do so, the method must obviously refer to a classification scheme or set of categories that can be used to describe and represent the essential aspects of a task. The functions proposed by Rouse are characteristically on a higher level of abstraction than the therbligs and refer to cognitive functions, or cognitive tasks, rather than to physical movements.

For example antibiotic resistance hand sanitizer cheap 250 mg azithromycin with visa, one analysis of accidents at sea found that habits antibiotics for dogs ears purchase 100mg azithromycin amex, incorrect diagnoses bacteria antibiotics buy generic azithromycin 500 mg on-line, lack of attention antibiotic resistance gmo purchase azithromycin 100mg line, lack of training, and unsuitable personality contributed to 93 of the 100 accidents studied (Wagenaar and Groeneweg, 1988). The authors of the latter study conclude that preventing human error is the most promising approach to reducing accidents. Some of their proposed solutions include better training, working conditions, behavioral controls, and incentives. This again supports the conclusion that behavioral solutions are an important tool in preventing accidents and deserve more consideration than the hierarchy of hazard control would suggest. However, it should be emphasized that there are other ways of eliminating or reducing undesired behavior that can be quite effective. Design for usability and understandability Behavioral constraints-elements of product design that make the undesired behavior difficult or impossible 3. User selection-making the product available only to selected, qualified, and responsible users Supervision, enforcement, and incentives As pointed out by Norman (1988), human errors can often be eliminated by designing products to be more usable. Some of his suggested solutions include the use of affordances and constraints, visible and natural mappings, and the provision of feedback. Such features make correct and incorrect uses of the product more obvious to the user and reduce the need for instruction manuals, warning labels, and other types of product information. Behavioral constraints, on the other hand, are features of the product that make it hard or impossible to perform certain behaviors (Norman, 1988). Examples include features such as interlocks, lock-ins, lockouts, guards, or barriers. Other behavioral constraints require that the user have certain knowledge (such as a password) to operate the product and are often targeted to prevent use of a product by unqualified users. Some related strategies include screening out employees with alcohol or drug dependence or bad driving records or who have not taken training courses. Supervision- and enforcement-related strategies focus on detecting and stopping the behavior, as illustrated by the need for supervisors to detect and prevent willful violations of safety rules. Behavioral incentives include methods of rewarding safe behavior, such as reduced insurance premiums to nonsmokers or to drivers who use seatbelts. Other uses of incentives include punishment, such as issuing tickets for failing to wear a seatbelt. At this point, it should almost be unnecessary to state that there are many fundamentally different approaches to modifying human behavior that will often be effective. Behavioral controls such as safety information supplement product design by making certain hazards more obvious. They can also supplement supervision, enforcement, and use of behavioral incentives by reminding or informing people such programs are in place. A warning sign that informs drivers that they have entered a radar speed control zone or that speeding penalties are doubled in highway construction work zones illustrates this role. A closely related role of a warning is that of providing feedback that informs the user when they make errors. The importance of the alerting and feedback roles of a warning implies that warning systems that detect and selectively respond to intermittent hazards are especially desirable. Warnings and other forms of safety information, such as safety precautions, can also serve as performance aids that help people decide what to do (Lehto and Miller, 1986; Lehto, 1992). In the latter role, the information sources often are serving as concise forms of external memory that help people remember and apply what they already know. Such information can be a useful supplement to training, instruction manuals, education, and experience. This role is especially likely to be important when people do not know or have forgotten how to perform certain safety-critical tasks. Rather than simply reacting to accidents, management should be proactively taking steps to prevent them from occurring. To do this properly, management must balance the severity and likelihood of the hazards faced against the effectiveness and cost of control measures. The first step in this process is to systematically identify which hazards are potentially present. The next step is to assess the criticality of each hazard on some type of risk index that takes into account both severity and likelihood. Management can then use this information to prioritize hazards and decide upon control measures that keep risks at an acceptable level.

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Ensure an ergonomic procedure design; utilize tick-off sheets antibiotics for urinary tract infection during pregnancy buy azithromycin 250mg with mastercard, place keeping aids infection you catch in hospital cheap 500mg azithromycin mastercard, etc antimicrobial wipes generic azithromycin 250mg. Develop robust shift-handover procedures; training; provide team training across shift boundaries; develop robust and auditable data-recording systems (logs) antibiotic vs antibacterial safe 500mg azithromycin. Provide emergency response training; use flexible crewing strategies; develop emergency operating procedures able to deal with multiple transients; generate decision/diagnostic support facilities. Ergonomic design of interface to allow provision of effective attention-gaining measures; supervision and checking; task-organization optimization, so that the operators are not inactive for long periods and are not isolated. Cognitive/stimulus overload: too many signals present for the operator to cope with. Stereotype fixation: operator fails to realize that situation has deviated from norm. Training and procedural emphasis on range of possible symptoms/causes; fault­symptom matrix as a job aid; decision support system; shift technical advisor/supervision. Signal discrimination failure: operator fails to realize that the signal is different. Improved ergonomics in the interface design; enhanced training and procedural support in the area of signal differentiation; supervision checking. Confirmation bias: operator only selects data that confirm given hypothesis and ignores other disconfirming data sources. Problem-solving training; team training; shift technical advisor (diverse, highly qualified operator who can ``stand back' and consider alternative diagnoses), functional procedures: high-level information displays; simulator training. Thematic vagabonding: operator flits from datum to datum, never actually collating it meaningfully. Problem-solving training; team training; simulator training; functional procedure specification for decision-timing requirements; high-level alarms for system integrity degradation. Problem-solving training; team training (including training in the need to question decisions and in the ability of the team leader(s) to take constructive criticism); high-level information displays; simulator training; high-level alarms for system integrity degradation. Hollnagel presents a large number of tables of genotypes; within each of these tables, the genotype is further resolved into "general consequents," which are, in turn, categorized into "specific consequents. Ultimately, these influences can give rise to chains of antecedentconsequent links. Table 9 lists the consequents associated with the person-related genotype "observation," the technology-related genotype "equipment failure," and the organizational/environment-related genotype "communication. Hollnagel argues that this potentially large solution space can be logically constrained if the context is sufficiently well known. Using this scheme, the process of human performance or error prediction occurs as follows. Phenotypes will always be categorized as consequents as they are the endpoints of the paths. More recently, an approach to human performance prediction has been proposed that consists of an integration of a number of human factors and system safety hazard analysis techniques (Sharit, 2008). A measurement or some information is missed, usually during a sequence of actions. An event or some information is incorrectly recognized or mistaken for something else. The identification of an event/information is incorrect but, unlike in a ``false recognition,' is a more deliberate process. Technology-Related Genotype: ``Equipment Failure' Equipment failure An actuator or control either cannot be moved or moves too easily. Information delays There are delays in the transmission of information, hence in the efficiency of communication, both within the system and between systems. Command queues Commands or actions are not being carried out because the system is unstable, but are (presumably) stacked. Information not available Information is not available due to software or other problems. Organization-Related Genotype: ``Communication' Communication failure Message not received the message or the transmission of information did not reach the receiver.